Herbarium of Apuleius
This is a translated manuscript, not an original Anglo-Saxon work. Latin text originally from 4th or 5th century, widely distributed throughout Europe. First translated into Old English between 1000 to 1050 AD (located in the British Library). Many later manuscripts & printed texts exist. The actual author is unknown (Apuleius Platonicus is a fake name, sometimes referenced as Pseudo-Apuleius, not to be confused with Apuleius Madaurensis, the Roman novelist of “The Golden Ass”). This manuscript was highly influential in bringing southern European herbal medicine and lore into England. Some lore perpetuated by this book includes mandrake. Root of this plant in human form-digging up would result in severe illness or death. To extract this root–tied to dog to drag it up.
Bald’s Leechbook
Earliest surviving Anglo-Saxon manuscript from 900 to 950 AD. Only one manuscript in existence at the British Library. This manuscript is complete & in excellent condition. Bald was an Ango-Saxon doctor (leech) who commissioned the creation of this ‘manual’ by a scribe named Cild
“Bald is the owner of this book, which he ordered Cild to write,
Earnestly I pray here all men, in the name of Christ,
That no treacherous person take this book from me,
Neither by force nor by theft nor by any false statement.
Why? Because the richest treasure is not so dear to me
As my dear books which the Grace of Christ attends.”
Leechbook is based on lore, rather than the author’s observations & provides an interesting look into Anglo-Saxon beliefs & traditions. Recently a study that tested a medieval eye salve recipe to kill MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus). This study conducted at the University of Nottingham followed the step by step recipe for the eye salve from Bald’s Leechbook. Results showed that this effectively killed over 90% of MRSA bacteria grown in a petri dish.
Lacnunga
The title Lacnunga is an Old English term for ‘Remedies’ & is a collection of Anglo-Saxon remedies, charms, & prayers. Title does not appear in the manuscript, but was given by Oswald Cockayne, 19th century scholar on Early English texts. Likely written during late 10th to mid-11th century, prior to the Norman Invasion in 1066. Much of the text appears to be variant versions from other sources, in particular Balds’ Leechbook.
Macer’s Herbal
Following the Norman Invasion of 1066 until the early printed herbals, there are very few herbal manuscripts from the British Isles. During this time, Anglo-Saxon lore fell out of favor & most of the Norman texts were in Latin. Additionally, the Norman’s had substantially less knowledge on herbs than the Anglo-Saxons. One example from this time period is Macer’s Herbal, a transcription of a Medieval Latin poem on the virtues of herbs. This was first translated into English as early as the 12th century with a subsequent translation in 1373 by John Leamoure.
Banckes’ Herbal
First printed English herbal in 1525. Published by Richard Banckes. The author is unknown, likely based on some lost medieval English manuscript. Highly likely that the writer used a manuscript version of Macer’s Herbal (some parts closely resemble each other). This herbal had widespread popularity. Multiple reprints by various London printers using different titles over next 30 years, such as Askham’s Herball, Copland’s Herball, & A New Herball of Macer.
The Grete Herball
The most famous of the early printed English herbals is the Grete Herball, first published in 1526 by Peter Treveris, just a year after Banckes’ Herbal. In many ways, the Grete Herball is inferior to Banckes’ Herbal, nevertheless, it achieved wider acclaim. Apart from an original introduction, the Grete Herball is a translation of the French herbal Le Grand Herbier, which itself was a translation of a German herbal printed in Mainz in 1485 or 1491. In many ways, the Grete Herball is a return to medieval lore. Beautifully detailed woodcut frontpiece & printer’s mark, but other illustrations are of poorer quality, being inferior copies of the earlier German herbal. No scientific/taxonomic organization of herbs, merely alphabetical entries.
Turner’s Herbal
William Turner is considered the father of English botany. In addition to being a botanist, he was also a Protestant Theologian & a physician. He was the first Englishman to study plants scientifically, having spent considerable time in Europe due to Protestant persecutions. He printed several religious books supporting Protestantism, which were popular in England, resulting in their outright ban during Henry VIII’s reign. His works were again declared heretical during reign of Queen Mary in 1555 & many were burned. With ascension of Queen Elizabeth, he returned to England. He printed several smaller botanical works, one outlining specific locations for herbs in England (a first of its kind). His major botanical contribution, A New Herbal, was printed in three parts. Part 1 in 1551 in London, part 2 in Cologne in 1561 during his forced exile, & 1568 with all three parts again in Cologne. The illustrations for Turner’s herbal were reprints from German botanist Leonhart Fuchs (as was the case for most 16th century hebals). Turner borrowed the woodblocks for his herbal (over 400 blocks in final herbal edition). The complete edition is dedicated to Queen Elizabeth – Turner apparently had occasion to converse with Elizabeth in Latin & spoke effusively of her mastery of the language.
Gerard’s Herbal
Written by John Gerard, was likely the most popular English book on plants during the 17th Century. The originality of this work is questionable, at best, as Gerard purportedly engaged in plagiaristic practices. Used unacknowledged translation of Flemish botanist/physician Rembert Dodoens’s Pemptades by a Dr. Priest. Printed by Queen’s printer, John Norton. Norton had commissioned a Dr. Priest, a member of the College of Physicians to translate Dodoens’s Pemptades from Latin to English.
Priest died before finishing this work & Gerard somehow was assigned to finish the work. However, Gerard does not give any credit to Priest or Dodoens, claiming that Priest’s translated work died with him. During the readying process for this herbal, James Garret, a Flemish apothecary living in London, happened into the printing shop. He found many problems, including inaccurate use of Mathias de L’Obel’s taxonomic system for plants as well as rough compilation of Dodoens work. Norton was less concerned with plagiarism, but was more concerned with inaccuracies in text. Norton hired Mathias de L’Obel, another Flemish botanist/physician, to proofread the text & he made many edits (roughly in first 2/3rd of text). When Gerard found out, he was furious & ran de L’Obel out of the office. Despite the remaining errors, Norton printed herbal as is. Gerard got all the credit & none went to L’Obel or others. In addition to the errors in the book (mismatched woodcuts & descriptions), there are also some absurd accounts (Goose tree or Barnakle Treewhich would actually grow shells which would open & hatch out barnacle geese).
John Parkinson
Last of the great English Herbalists. He is most famous for his gardening book Paradisi in sole paradisus terrestris. He was a practicing apothecary- appointed apothecary to King James I. After publication of Paradisus, King Charles I bestowed upon him the title of Botanicus Regius Primarius. Not much else is known about Parkinson. His fortunes likely followed the royal family Paradisus – Play on words for his name: Paradisis –Park, in –in, sole – sun. Strictly speaking, this is not an herbal, but rather a orticultural treatise. Parkinson was rather close to Queen Henrietta Maria & there is a rather elaborate dedication to the queen at the beginning of the book. Title page contains several interesting images. One is the “Scythian Lamb” or “Vegetable Lamb”. This is a myth from the Middle Ages lamb growing up on a stalk, both truce animal & living plant. Lamb was able to reach down & browse on nearby vegetation. Once fully ripe, the lamb would burst open as a seed pod & reveal a perfectly formed lamb. Other versions of this myth would have the lamb consuming all available vegetation, at which point the stem would wither & the lamb would die. The lamb was also the favorite food of wolves, but no other carnivore would touch it. Additionally, title page has interesting size proportions (extremely large flowers compared to Adam & Eve). This was Parkinson’s most famous book, though not his largest. It provides an interesting glimpse into 17th century English gardening.
Theatrum Botanicum: The Theater of Plants: Or, An Herball of Large Extent – 3,800 plants described, double the number in Gerard’s Herbal. It took Parkinson the better part of his life to write this herbal, publishing it at age 72. Except for the illustrations, it was a more accurate book than Gerard’s. However, it never received quite the amount of circulation as either Paradisus or Gerard’s Herbal. This may partially be due to the name (not as accessible to average person). Original title was going to be “A Garden of Simples”, which might have been more accessible. Frontpiece by William Marshal. Many interesting images- Adam & Solomon representing toil and wisdom. Four female figures in corners represent Europe, Asia, Africa, & America, each surrounded by plants from their continents. This also includes image of Scythian Lamb. After dedication to King Charles I (which includes an interesting comment about diseases caused by evil spirits), Parkinson includes various letters of recommendation from 3 Oxford doctors. Parkinson divides plants into classes or tribes. These don’t represent actual relationships, but rather noteworthy characteristics. For example “Sweet smelling plants,” “Purging Plants,” “Venemous Sleepy & Hurtful plants.”
An Idea of a Phytological History Propounded 1673 by Nehemiah Grew 1641-1712
Along with Italian Marcello Malpighi, Nehemiah Grew laid the foundation for the discipline of plant anatomy. With the help of newly popularized magnifying glasses, Grew was able to make much more detailed observations about plant anatomy. He is commonly referred to as the Father of Plant Anatomy. These observations were some of the first to observe detailed vascular structure in roots & leaves, leaf pores, tissues & organs, etc. Grew’s most notable work is Anatomy of Plants, which he published in 1682. An Idea of a Phytological History Propounded, published in 1673, is a compilation of papers he presented to the Royal Society in London the previous year.
The Useful Family Herbal 1754 by John Hill
The useful family herbal, or, An account of all those English plants, which are remarkable for their virtues. English Botanist & prolific writer of natural history. He is particularly well known for his spat with the Royal Society. Upon failing to be elected to Fellowship of the Royal society, he took revenge by publishing multiple anonymous satires against the Society. These actions proved to haunt him the rest of his life, being unable to attain a post at the British Museum. He struggled through various journalism employment positions. Later, he was able to publish sound work in natural history, though this likely was discredited due to lasting grudges. The useful family herbal was printed in multiple times & is representative of a more careful study of plants, indicative of the mid-18th century.
