Chelsea Physic Garden & Philip Miller(1691–1771), Linnaeus(1707-1778)

19th Century view of London's Chelsea Physic Garden from the south showing the famous cedars of Lebanon planted here in 1683. They were among the first to be planted in England.

The practical English gardener, author, and experimental horticulturalist Philip Miller (1691–1771) was the curator of Chelsea Physic Garden. Miller learned his profession in the paternalistic pattern so familiar in the 18th century. He worked in his father's market garden before becoming a florist in Pimlico. On leaving school young Miller assisted his father but soon went on his own as a florist, garden planner, and nurseryman specializing in ornamental shrubs. Hans Sloan noticed his work, and he soon was asked to assist the foreman of the botanic garden at Chelsea. In 1722, Miller was appointed curator of the Physic Garden of the London Apothecaries at Chelsea, where he served for 48 years.

The Chelsea garden under his direction attained an international reputation boosted by his various publications, especially The Gardeners Dictionary. Carl von Linne (Linnaeus) 1707-1778 the great Swedish botanist made several visits to the Physic Garden in the 1730s, meeting with the garden's curator Philip Miller.

Miller's Dictionary went into 8 updated editions to 1768 , with the 7th edition of 1756 including the new nomenclature details of Linnaeus; it was translated into several European languages.

Because he became so well known, Miller received propagation material from around the world and his practical and experimental work earned him an unparalleled horticultural reputation. He became famous throughout Europe for all of the plants sent from North America, which he grew at the garden. He redistributed many of his horticultural successes throughout Europe and America. Miller remained at the Physic Garden, until he was nearly 80, finally retiring on 6 February 1771 .

Chelsea Physic Garden still exists today as one of Britain's oldest botanical gardens, a unique piece of living history with a collection of more than 5,000 medicinal and unusual plants. Over 30,000 people visit the 4 acre site each year.

The first physic garden was established in Italy in 1543, and the Chelsea Physic Garden was planted in London in 1673. Only the physic garden in Oxford preceded it in England. The 4 acre Chelsea site sat on the banks of the River Thames.

The Chelsea Physic Garden was founded as the Apothecaries' Garden, with the purpose of training apprentices in identifying plants. The location was chosen as the proximity to the river created a warmer microclimate allowing the survival of many non-native plants during harsh British winters. The river was also important as a transportation route facilitating easy movements of both plants and botanists.

In 1722, Dr. Hans Sloane, Lord of the Manor, after whom the nearby locations of Sloane Square and Sloane Street were named, purchased the Manor of Chelsea from Charles Cheyne. This purchase of about 4 acres was leased to the Society of Apothecaries for £5 a year in perpetuity. That amount is still paid each year to the heirs of that owner, Dr. Hans Sloane.

I know this blog is about American gardens, but I just can't resist including photos of the Chelsea garden which had so much influence on colonial gardens. The lovely little garden, which sits smack in the middle of busy London, is a beautiful, fragrant retreat from the near frantic bustle of the 21st century clattering around it.
19th Century Map of London showing Chelsea Physic Garden.
21st Century photo of Chelsea Physic Garden in London
21st Century photo of Chelsea Physic Garden in London
21st Century photo of Chelsea Physic Garden in London
21st Century photo of Chelsea Physic Garden in London
21st Century photo of Chelsea Physic Garden in London
21st Century photo of Chelsea Physic Garden in London.

Botany Books & Herbals owned in Early America - Lady Jean Skipwith's (1748-1826)

Lady Jean Skipwith (1748-1826) of Virginia owned:

Elements of botany; or, Outlines of the natural history of vegetables by Benjamin Smith Barton

The gardeners dictionary containing the best & newest methods of cultivating & improving the kitchen, fruit, flower garden, & nursery; ... The eighth edition, revised & altered according to the latest system of botany by Philip Miller

The Botanist's calendar, & pocket flora : arranged according to the Linnæan system. To which are added references to the best figures of British plants

Lady Jean Skipwith's library is one of the very few known southern women's libraries from the colonial period, and is certainly the largest collection assembled by a Virginia woman.  Although little is known of Jean Skipwith's education, her passion for books is obvious. Numerous invoices, lists and inventories, most contained in the Skipwith Family Papers in the library of the College of William and Mary, have allowed the library to be outlined in great detail. A bibliography of the collection can be found in Mildred K. Abraham, "The Library of Lady Jean Skipwith: A Book Collection from the Age of Jefferson." The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 91:3 (July, 1983), pp. 296-347.

Lady Jean Skipwith was born Jane Miller; her father Hugh Miller was a Scottish tobacco merchant who lived in Virginia from 1746 to 1760, and her mother Jane was a member of the well-known Bolling family.  Following his wife's death, Hugh Miller returned to Glasgow with his five young children; he died there in 1762. Jean (she had changed her name) lived in Scotland until around 1786, then moved briefly to Liverpool before returning to the Elm Hill plantation in Virginia which had been inherited from her father. 

In 1788, Jean married Sir Peyton Skipwith of Mecklenburg County, VA (1740-1805). Skipwith, one of the wealthiest men in Virginia, had previously been married to Jean's sister Anne (1742/3-1779).  Lady Jean gave birth to four children in five years (all after the age of forty), and by 1797 had moved her family from Elm Hill to her husband's new plantation, Prestwould, which still stands. Detailed records of household purchases and garden notes (not to mention her library records) reveal Lady Jean's wide-ranging interests and occupations.  Following her husband's death in 1805, Lady Jean remained at Prestwould until she died in 1826, aged 78.

Matthaeus Silvaticus (c1280-c1342) Early Botanica Garden at Salerno

Salerno is an ancient city in southwestern Italy located on the Gulf of Salerno on the Tyrrhenian Sea. Human settlement at Salerno dates back to pre-historic times. The site has been one of the most important & strategic ports on the Mediterranean sea, with a rich Greco-Roman heritage. It was an independent Lombard principality in the early Middle Ages. During this time, the Schola Medica Salernitana, the 1st medical school in the Europe, was founded. 

Salerno’s Minerva Garden: a Hidden Trove of Therapeutic Treasures

Posted on January 24, 2015 

While many have heard of the botanical gardens built during the Italian Renaissance period in northern Italy towns such as Padua and Pisa, a small & less well-known medicinal garden in Salerno actually predates them. 

The Minerva Garden in this southern Italian town traces its roots back to the 14C, when the medical writer & botanist Matthaeus Silvaticus decided to set up a small garden of simple medicine, attached to Salerno’s medical school, Europe’s oldest. 

Silvaticus used the garden for experimental & educational purposes, and mentions it in his 650-page encyclopedia about medicating agents, Pandectarum Medicinae, completed around 1317. In Chapter 196 on the large-leaved Colocasia plant, he says “and I have it in my garden in Salerno, near a sizeable spring.”

The area on which the modern garden stands has been identified as the garden referred to by Silvaticus. The layout visitors see today is a restoration based on its appearance in the 17-18C when it was part of a noble residence, & includes several different levels. An interesting feature is its complex network of waterways, fountains & springs

In the central garden on the first level, the plants are divided into sections reflecting the “four elements”: Air, Earth, Fire & Water, which formed the basis of the “humors theory” developed by Greek physician Galen, who lived between 129-216 AD. The mix of pairs of elements form the four fundamental bodily qualities: hot, cold, dry & wet.

In the human body, the four elements are represented in the four humors of the organism: blood (air), yellow bile (fire), phlegm (water) & black bile (earth). Here’s a chart:

The theory, which Medieval therapeutic principles in Salerno were based on, supposes that the prevalence of one of the humors in an individual decides one of four personality types: the Sanguine (optimistic, leader-like, lovers of food) who are associated with the Air element & blood,  the Choleric (thin, frail, bad-tempered) who are linked to Fire & yellow bile, the Phlegmatic (fat, sluggish, lazy & unintelligent), connected to Water & phlegm, & the Melancholic (analytical, quiet & sad), tied with Earth & black bile.

Based on this system, the human body is governed by the four humors & any imbalances in them creates pathological states. Illness, viewed as the excess of one humor over others, can be corrected by a medicine that is opposite to the nature of the overbearing humor. For this reason, plants are classified with the same criteria used for studying human humors. So some plants are hot & wet, some are dry & cold etc.

The grounds of the garden are marked to show which herbal sections help for ailments related to the various humors & their corresponding elements, here we have water & earth & the quality of their pair in the middle: cold.

Here is Aloe Vera, planted in the section between “Hot” & “Dry”

You can wander up the steps to subsequent levels, where you pass more springs, waterways & lemon tree groves among the many types of therapeutic plants:

The lower garden is full of orange trees & there is a pond-like water feature with overgrowing plants on one side:

Clara Peeters (1594-1657) Plant Still-Lifes

1594 Clara Peeters (Flemish painter, 1594-c 1657)

Clara Peeters (1594-c 1657) was not painting portraits as were most women painters born in the 1400-1500s.  She chose still-life painting.  Flemish Clara Peeters was painting still lifes as early as the 1st decade of the 17th century. She was baptized in Antwerp in 1594, & married there in 1639. Her earliest dated paintings, from 1607-1608, are small, detailed images representing food & drink. At the time that Clara Peeters was painting religious imagery was forbidden in the Dutch Reformed Protestant Church.  Artistic conventions were developed to make coded references to life, death, & religion, so her paintings conveyed a meaning to her patrons of much more than objects in a still life. Each painting would be a visual puzzle to be decoded by the viewer.  It is speculated that the skill with which this teenage artist executed her painting suggests that she may have been trained by a master painter. Although there is no documentary evidence of her education, scholars theorize that Peeters may have been a student of Osias Beert, a still-life painter from Antwerp.  By 1612, the 18-year-old artist was producing large numbers of painstakingly rendered still lifes displaying symbols in groupings of metal goblets, gold coins, & exotic flowers.

Clara Peeters (Flemish painter, 1594-c 1657)

Clara Peeters (Flemish painter, 1594-a 1657) Early 1607 Still Life In this 1607 still life, Clara chose a high vantage point, so that the viewer looks down on the objects. In the early 1600s this was also the perspective chosen by other Northern Netherlandish painters such as Floris van Schooten (died after 1655) & Floris van Dijck (1575-1651).

Clara Peeters (Flemish painter, 1594-c 1657)

Clara Peeters (Flemish painter, 1594-a 1657) Flowers in a Stoneware Vase

Clara Peeters (Flemish painter, 1594-c 1657)

Clara Peeters (Flemish painter, 1594-a 1657) Still Life

Cristóvão da Costa (c 1525-94) Portuguese Physician & Botanist

Cristóvão da Costa or Cristóbal Acosta & Latinized as Christophorus Acosta Africanus (c 1525-94) was a Portuguese doctor, botanist & natural historian. He is considered a pioneer in the study of plants from the Orient, especially their use in pharmacology. He published a book on the medicinal plants of the orient titled Tractado de las drogas y medicinas de la Indias Orientales in 1578.  

Cristóvão da Costa is believed to have been born somewhere in Africa, possibly in Tangier, Ceuta, both Portuguese cities at the time, or in Portuguese Cape Verde, since in his work he claims to be African (Christophorus Acosta Africanus). Reportedly, he was born into a family which converted from the Jewish religion to Catholicism.  He went to the East Indies before 1550 as a soldier, visiting Persia, India, Malaya, & perhaps China.  At at one point, he was taken prisoner & held captive in Bengal.

After returning to Portugal, he joined his former captain, Luís de Ataíde, who had been appointed viceroy of Portuguese India. He returned to Goa in 1568. He served as personal physician to the viceroy; & in 1569, he was appointed physician to the royal hospital in Cochin, treating the king of Cochin.  By 1571, he was collecting botanical specimens in various parts of India. 

When Ataide ended his term in 1572, Acosta returned to Lisbon with him. He practiced medicine in Burgos, 1576-87. He was the contracted surgeon & then the contracted physician to the city, both positions were well-salaried. After the death of his wife (c 1587), he retired to a hermitage.

Title page from Spanish edition of Tractado de las drogas y medicinas de las Indias Orientales,  At Burgos in 1578, he published (in Spanish) his work Tractado de las drogas y medicinas de las Indias orientales ("Treatise of the drugs & medicines of the East Indies"). In publication, he says he was brought to India by his desire to find "in several regions & provinces learned & curious men from whom I could daily learn something new; & to see the diversity of plants God has created for human health."

Pineapple from Tractado de las drogas, y medicinas de las Indias Orientales, Burgos 1578

Acosta was one of the pioneers in studying the plants, especially in their pharmaceutical uses, of the orient. His Tractado de las drogas y medicinas de las Indias orientales contains systematic, first-hand observations on oriental drugs. His work on drugs widely translated. 

See:

Harry Friedenwald, The Jews and Medicine, 2 vols. (Baltimore, 1944), Essay XXXI.  

Jacob Seidi, "The Relationship of Garcia de Orta's and Cristobal Acosta's Botanical Works," Actes du VIIe Congress International d'Histoire des Sciences, (Paris, 1955).

Magdalena Poulle (1632-1699) Collects Tropical Plants

1683 David van der Plas (1647-1704) - Magdalena Poulle with Garden Plan & Nephew Pieter

Magdalena Poulle (1632-1699) turned to collecting exotic plants after the death of her second husband, merchant Adriaen Daem. In 1680 she bought the ruin Gunterstein in Breukelen and had the house rebuilt. She concentrated on the garden and built up a collection with an international reputation. 

The orangery that she had built in the garden was equipped with two greenhouses on the outside at the ends. Fireplaces used to heat the greenhouses were outside the structures.  Since the greenhouses of Gunterstein were on an elevation, it is plausible that the heat here was spread via pipes under the floor of the greenhouses. 

Magdalena Poulle was one of the first private collectors to have a modern greenhouse with which plants could survive the cold Dutch winters. It is said that the greenhouses of Gunterstein have been a model for the tropical greenhouse of the 'Chelsea Physic Garden' in London.

Magdalena Poulle's Oranjerie at Gunterstein

Magdalena Poulle was active in circles of other large plant collectors and landscapers. Her family relationships and extensive network including politicians, traders and contacts from the circle of Stadholder William of Orange. She was in contact with Agneta or Agnes Block (1629-1704) who had already started collecting plants ten years earlier & lived nearby at Vijverhof in Nieuwersluis.

Magdalena Poulle's Gunterstein

The profound interest in exotic plants during the late 17C is shown not only through the example of the Amsterdam merchant widow Magdalena Poulle, but also by the importance of networks by which it was possible to built up a collection of exotic plants. 

Because of her family ties, Poulle had close links with other important botanical collectors in the Dutch Republic, among which was her second cousin, Jan Commelin. As commissioner of the Hortus Medicus in Amsterdam, he had many contacts with important botanists such as Paul Hermann at Leiden as well as connections with networks in England. 

Commelin played an important part in the development of the new technical innovation of the tropical hothouse in 1684, in which it was possible to grow tropical plants. Soon after its development, the hothouse became a necessary status symbol and could be found in the gardens of other botanical collectors in the Republic, such as the one built by Poulle. 

In the 5 years after 1680, when she became the owner of the ruin Gunterstein, Poulle built not only house and gardens, but also formed one of the most remarkable collections of plants in the Dutch Republic, thus earning her fame at both home and abroad with gardeners and botanists alike.

Magdalena Poulle's Garden Plan

Alexander Marshall (1639-1682) Tulips

 Alexander Marshall (1639-1682) 

Alexander Marshal was by profession a British merchant, who had lived for some time in France, but he was also a respected botanist & entomologist, described by Samuel Hartlib as "one of the greatest Florists and dealers for all manner of Roots Plants and seeds from the Indies and else where" (Leith-Ross, p. 7).

 Alexander Marshall (1639-1682) 

He created at least 4 albums of drawings of flowers & insects: the one from which the present works are taken, possibly his earliest; A Book of Mr Tradescant's choicest Flowers and Plants, exquisitely limned in vellum from the 1640s (recorded in the catalog of the Musaeum Tradescantianum in 1656, but now lost); the Windsor Florilegium (cats. 45, 47, 48); & a volume of 63 folios of insect studies (now Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences). He collected & made observations on insects & the art of drawing them & in the Bishop of London's garden at Fulham, where he resided for a time, he planted cedars of Lebanon &  raised exotic plants including a Guernsey Lily sent to him in 1659 by his friend General Lambert. The Bishop was Henry Compton (1632-1713), one of the most active horticulturalists of his day & for a time religious instructor to Princesses Mary & Anne.

 Alexander Marshall (1639-1682) 

'A new Man of Experiments and Art' (Hartlib, in Leith-Ross, p. 7), Marshal experimented with colors from plants throughout his life, & the Royal Society approached him for his recipes soon after their foundation. In his reply in 1667, he gave one or two examples but apologized for not giving more, because not only were the recipes constantly changing, but, echoing the reasoning of John Evelyn & others, he wrote: "The truth is, they are pretty secrets, but known, they are nothing. Several have been at me to know, how; as if they were but trifles, and not worth secrecy. To part with them as yet I desire to be excused."(Leith-Ross, p. 12-13) 

The drawings at Windsor contain unusual colors &, kept in an album, they are still fresh. Unfortunately the group of 33 on vellum in the British Museum must have been exhibited, once they were removed from the album in which they came to the Museum in 1878... 

 Alexander Marshall (1639-1682) 

A number of the flowers depicted were relatively new to northern Europe in the 17th century...A large number of the flowers Marshall depicted were tulips, including 'Parrot' tulips, broken tulips with irregular edges, which came into cultivation shortly after the Restoration. 

Alexander Marshall (1639-1682) 

The bouquet motif, usually a random mixture of flowers intertwined or loosely tied with a ribbon, frequently appeared in floral pattern books whose primary purpose was for designers or decorators of textiles & china. It also appeared in botanical books with primarily decorative intent & was therefore an apt one for use in florilegia. It was used by Nicolas Robert (1614-85) & other artists in their botanical portraits on vellum painted for the King of France. 

Marshal was resident for some time in France, where he may have seen their work. In the 18th century, Ehret employed the motif frequently throughout his career, having seen the French works on a visit to Paris in 1734-5. Marshal did not use it in his most famous work, the Windsor Florilegium, where nearly all the watercolors are on paper, but he did use it for the above series from the 33 at the British Museum, all watercolor on vellum.

From the British Museum

See:
John Fisher and Jane Roberts, 'Mr Marshal's Flower Album from the Royal Library at Windsor Castle', London 1985, passim; 
P. Leith-Ross and H. McBurney, 'The Florilegium of Alexander Marshall at Windsor Castle', 2000, pp. 7, 21, 24-8 and Appendix C

Clara Peeters {1594-1657} Flowers as Symbols

Clara Peeters (Flemish painter, 1594-c 1657)

Clara Peeters (1594-c 1657) was not painting portraits as were most women painters born in the 1400-1500s.  Peeters is the best-known female Flemish artist of this era and one of the few women artists working professionally in 17C Europe, despite restrictions on women's access to artistic training and membership in guilds. Peeters was among the earliest specialist painters of still lifes and flowers, working while this genre was still emerging. Fewer than ten paintings of flowers produced in the Netherlands can be dated before 1608, when she painted her first recorded work.

Clara Peeters (Flemish painter, 1594-c 1657)

She was baptized in Antwerp in 1594, & married there in 1639. Her earliest dated paintings, from 1607-1608, are small, detailed images representing food & drink. When Clara Peeters was painting, religious imagery was forbidden in the Dutch Reformed Protestant Church.  Artistic symbols  were developed to make coded references to life, death, & religion, so her paintings conveyed a meaning to her patrons of much more than objects in a still life. Each painting would be a visual puzzle to be decoded by the viewer. 

Clara Peeters (Flemish painter, 1594-c 1657)

Some scholars wonder if the skill with which this teenage artist executed her painting suggests that she may have been trained by a master painter. Although there is no documentary evidence of her education, some scholars theorize that Peeters may have been a student of Osias Beert, a still-life painter from Antwerp.  By 1612, the 18-year-old artist was producing large numbers of painstakingly rendered still lifes displaying symbols in groupings of metal goblets, gold coins, & exotic flowers.

Clara Peeters (Flemish painter, 1594-c 1657)

Clara Peeters (Flemish painter, 1594-c 1657)

Matthaeus Silvaticus (c1280-c1342) Encyclopedia of Medicines

Matthaeus Silvaticus teaching his students about medicinal plants in his physic garden in Salerno, from the frontispiece to a 1526 edition of Opus Pandectarum Medicinae 

Matthaeus Silvaticus or Mattheus Sylvaticus (c1280-c1342) was a medieval Latin medical writer & botanist. His is known for a 650-page encyclopedia about medicating agents (a pharmacopoeia) which he completed about year 1317 under the Latin title Pandectarum Medicinae or Pandectae Medicinae (English: Encyclopedia of Medicines). Most of the medicating agents were botanicals ("herbal medicines"). The presentation is in alphabetical order. The bulk of what his content is compiled from earlier medicine books, including books by Dioscorides, Avicenna, Serapion the Younger, & Simon of Genoa. As an indication of its popularity in late medieval Europe, the Pandectarum Medicinae was printed in at least 11 editions in various countries between the invention of the printing press & 1500.

Mattheus Silvaticus was born in northern Italy, probably Mantua. He was a student & teacher in botany & medicine at the School of Salerno in southern Italy.  The medical school in Salerno was influenced by Arabic-to-Latin translations of Arabic medical literature. As one indication of Arabic influence, 233 of 487 plant names that Matthaeus used were Latinizations of Arabic plant names. Many of those Latinized Arabic names had little circulation in Latin. Native Latin names existed for some of them, in which case Matthaeus also presents the native Latin name as well. In some cases he prefers to give primary status to the Arabic name in preference to the classical Latin name. In other cases he gives primary status to the Latin name & just mentions what the Arabic name is.

Woodcut; physician at patient's bedside.

The Pandectarum Medicinae is an encyclopedia. It has considerable value to historians as a document reflecting the state of pharmacology & medicine in Europe in the late medieval era. The method of presentation in Pandectarum Medicinae is that a medicinal substance is named together with very brief identifying information & then follows several lengthier summaries or quotations from several well-known medical authorities about the substance's properties & uses. The medical authorities are either the particular ancient Greek medical writers that were widely read by the medieval Arabs (particularly Diosorides & Galen) or else Arabic medical writers (particularly Serapion the Younger & Avicenna).  Part of Matthaeus's encyclopedia was taken from a shorter work by Simon of Genoa (aka Simon Januensis) entitled Synonyma Medicinae, which was written a few decades earlier & which is a dictionary of medicines rather than an encyclopedia.

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) Herbal

Hieronymus Bock(1498-1554) was a German botanist, physician, and Lutheran minister who began the transition from medieval botany to the modern scientific worldview by arranging plants by their relation or resemblance. The Three German fathers of Botany are: theologian & botanist Otto Brunfels(c 1489-1534); botanist, physician, & Lutheran minister Hieronymus Bock(1498-1554); &  physician Leonhart Fuchs (1501-1566). Brunfels authored Herbarum vivae eicones, with his own descriptions & 135 images directly from nature. Bock published Kreütterbuch darin unterscheidt Nammen und Würckung der Kreütter. Fuchs published his De historia stirpium commentarii insignes in Basel in 1542, which he illustrated 10 years later with woodcuts. 

In 1519 Bock enrolled at the university of Heidelberg. He married Eva Victor in 1523, and was schoolteacher in Zweibrücken for 9 years. He became the prince's physician & caretaker of the kitchen garden of the Count Palatine. In 1533, he received a life-time position as a Lutheran minister in nearby Hornbach, where he stayed up to his death in 1554. 

The 1st edition of his Kreutterbuch (literally "plant book") appeared in 1539 unillustrated; his stated objectives were to describe German plants, including their names, characteristics, and medical uses. Instead of following Dioscorides as was traditional, he developed his own system to classify 700 plants. Bock apparently traveled widely through the German region observing the plants for himself, since he includes ecological and distributional observations. His 1546 Kreutterbuch or "herbal" was illustrated by the artist David Kandel.

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) His 1546 herbal had 550 woodcuts by David Kandel. Beech Tree

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) His 1546 herbal had 550 woodcuts by David Kandel. Boxwood

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) His 1546 herbal had 550 woodcuts by David Kandel. Cherry Tree

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) His 1546 herbal had 550 woodcuts by David Kandel. Date Palm

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) His 1546 herbal had 550 woodcuts by David Kandel. Elm Tree

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) His 1546 herbal had 550 woodcuts by David Kandel. Fig Tree

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) His 1546  herbal had 550 woodcuts by David Kandel. Grapes

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) His 1546 herbal had 550 woodcuts by David Kandel. Lime Tree

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) His 1546 herbal had 550 woodcuts by David Kandel. Maple Tree

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) His 1546 herbal had 550 woodcuts by David Kandel. Mulberry Tree

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) His 1546 herbal had 550 woodcuts by David Kandel. Oak Tree

Hieronymus Bock (1498-1554) His 1546 herbal had 550 woodcuts by David Kandel. Pear Tree